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Living traditionsMexican principal questions progressive and shamanic content in public school materials Stage magicMaster illusionist Leon Etienne is bringing his Magic Rocks! show to The Grand at UW-Oshkosh FestivalsElgin's Day of the Dead walk is more than just a 5K MuseumsHans Baldung Grien Living traditions‘Mystical shaman’ plans Wānaka temple FestivalsWhere to celebrate Day of the Dead in San Antonio FestivalsSIPA to hold Samhain at Gaia House on Oct. 24 Living traditions5 ancient bathing rituals across the world FestivalsMidtown venue hosts Day of the Dead dinner WitchcraftPaul Carus’ *The History of the Devil and the Idea of Evil* (1899)Living traditionsMexican principal questions progressive and shamanic content in public school materials Stage magicMaster illusionist Leon Etienne is bringing his Magic Rocks! show to The Grand at UW-Oshkosh FestivalsElgin's Day of the Dead walk is more than just a 5K MuseumsHans Baldung Grien Living traditions‘Mystical shaman’ plans Wānaka temple FestivalsWhere to celebrate Day of the Dead in San Antonio FestivalsSIPA to hold Samhain at Gaia House on Oct. 24 Living traditions5 ancient bathing rituals across the world FestivalsMidtown venue hosts Day of the Dead dinner WitchcraftPaul Carus’ *The History of the Devil and the Idea of Evil* (1899)

EveryJaadu

Scholars and sceptics

Anthropologists, historians and investigators who study magic and test its claims.

Scholars and sceptics are the people who study magic from outside the practice: anthropologists, historians, folklorists, psychologists, scholars of religion and investigators who test claims. They have names such as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Marcel Mauss, Bronislaw Malinowski, Mary Douglas, Keith Thomas and Carlo Ginzburg, and also investigators such as James Randi. This page covers what they have found, how they disagree, and what their work has cost and changed. Their work has changed how the whole subject is understood.

Early theories

Nineteenth-century writers such as James Frazer treated magic as a mistaken early science, a view now widely rejected as arrogant and inaccurate. Later anthropologists, including Evans-Pritchard in his 1937 study of the Azande, showed that magical belief can be a consistent way of reasoning about misfortune. Mauss and Malinowski stressed its social role. Fieldwork, archives, laboratory studies and surveys are their main methods, and each field has its own debates and schools.

The history of witch trials

Historians have revised their view of the witch trials. Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane studied English village accusations, Carlo Ginzburg found the benandanti in Friuli, and Ronald Hutton has argued about the numbers and causes, and Silvia Federici links the persecution to the rise of capitalism, a thesis historians dispute. The older figure of nine million victims has been dropped, and estimates now run to tens of thousands of executions.

Testing claims

Sceptics test whether claims hold up. James Randi offered a prize for evidence of paranormal power that was never won, and organisations such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry investigate fraud. Researchers study why people believe: pattern-seeking, uncertainty and the wish to control events. The best sceptics aim to understand people, not to mock them. Sceptics hold that claims should be tested, and they have a long record of exposing cases such as spirit photography and fake healers.

Ethics of study

Scholars were often colonial officials or missionaries, and their reports shaped how Indigenous religions were named. Contemporary researchers work with communities, ask consent and respect closed knowledge. Practitioners sometimes object to being explained, and sceptics sometimes to being called closed-minded. The conversation continues, and this guide aims to stay neutral on whether magic works. Their critics reply that science cannot measure everything that matters to a community, and that explaining a ritual away is not the same as understanding it.

Scholars and sceptics on EveryJaadu

The entries written up so far, best known first.

RegionSouth Asia Southeast Asia East Asia Central Asia and the Caucasus Middle East North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Europe North America Latin America and the Caribbean Oceania

KindTradition Rite Charm Oracle Substance Being Figure Text Illusion Belief

PurposeProtection Healing Seeing and foretelling Luck and prosperity Love and attraction Cursing and harm Cleansing and purification Speaking with spirits and the dead Change and initiation Binding and oaths Power and authority Wonder and entertainment

BeliefHindu and Tantric Buddhist Jain Muslim and Sufi Jewish Christian Sikh Zoroastrian Shinto and Taoist Indigenous and shamanic African and Afro-diasporic Pagan and Neopagan Esoteric and occult Folk and village custom Secular and stage Other traditions

OccasionWeddings and betrothal Festivals Birth and childhood Death and remembrance Harvest, farming and weather New year Initiation and coming of age Illness and misfortune Journeys and voyages Everyday use

StandingLiving Revived Fading Historical Legendary Performed

OrderBest known A to Z Newest Living first

🇺🇸 United StatesHex sign Pennsylvania Dutch barn symbols that range from folk art to talismansCharm · Protection · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇩🇪 Germany and 2 moreBrocken spectreBrockengespenst A giant shadow cast by an observer onto clouds, often surrounded by a rainbow halo.Illusion · Wonder and entertainment Living 🇨🇱 ChileChilean mythology The myths and legends of Chile, blending indigenous roots with colonial influences.Tradition · Wonder and entertainment Living 🇷🇺 Russia and 3 moreNart sagaНарты кадджытæ A collection of epic tales from the North Caucasus about a legendary group of heroes.Text · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇮🇷 Iran and 2 moreJabir ibn Hayyanجابِر بِن حَيّان A legendary Islamic alchemist and philosopher whose writings shaped medieval magic and chemistryText · Power and authority · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇮🇹 ItalyThe MagicianLe Bateleur A tarot trump symbolizing power and the link between spirit and matterText · Power and authority · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇬🇧 United Kingdom and 2 moreDaniel Dunglas Home A Scottish physical medium known for levitation and spirit communication during the Victorian era.Belief · Speaking with spirits and the dead · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇮🇸 Iceland and 1 moreNorse mythology The mythic tales of the North Germanic peoples and their ancient gods.Tradition · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇨🇴 ColombiaColombian folklore Beliefs and legends passed down through generations in ColombiaTradition · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇹🇹 Trinidad and Tobago and 3 moreCaribbean folklore The blended tales and spirits of the Caribbean islandsTradition · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇳🇴 NorwaySteilneset Memorial A 2011 monument in Norway marking the 1621 Vardø witch trials and their victims.Illusion · Wonder and entertainment Historical 🇪🇸 SpainMaslama al-Majritiأبو القاسم مسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي A tenth-century scholar of alchemy and astronomy in Islamic Spain.Figure · Wonder and entertainment · Power and authority Historical

🇮🇪 IrelandIrish folklorebéaloideas The oral traditions, myths and customs of IrelandTradition · Wonder and entertainment Living 🇫🇷 France and 5 moreCount of St. GermainComte de Saint Germain An 18th-century European adventurer known for alchemy, music, and claims of immortality.Figure · Power and authority · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇮🇹 Italy and 1 morePietro d'Abano A medieval physician and astrologer accused of heresy and magic.Text · Healing · Wonder and entertainment Historical 🇰🇮 Kiribati and 4 moreMicronesian mythology The traditional belief systems and legends of the island peoples in the southwest Pacific.Belief · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇯🇵 JapanGazu Hyakki Yagyō画図百鬼夜行 A 1776 Japanese woodblock book of yōkai illustrations by Toriyama SekienText · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇮🇳 India and 1 moreMantraमन्त्रम् A sacred sound or phrase repeated to focus the mind and invoke spiritual powerText · Speaking with spirits and the dead · Power and authority Living

🇮🇹 Italy and 4 moreTarottarocchi A set of cards for games and divination, with roots in fifteenth-century ItalyText · Wonder and entertainment · Seeing and foretelling Living

🇬🇧 United Kingdom and 3 moreEdward Kelley An English occultist and scryer who worked with John Dee to contact angels and practice alchemy.Figure · Power and authority · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇨🇳 China and 1 moreLuoshu Square洛書 An ancient Chinese three-by-three magic square linked to geomancy and numerologyTradition · Power and authority · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇮🇳 India and 1 moreAshtamangalaअष्टमङ्गल A set of eight sacred symbols used in Indian religions to mark auspicious occasions and teach spiritual truths.Tradition · Power and authority · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇬🇧 United KingdomHarry Price A British psychic researcher and conjurer who investigated paranormal claims and exposed fraudulent mediums.Tradition · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇹🇷 Turkey and 2 moreApollonius of TyanaἈπολλώνιος ὁ Τυανεύς A first-century philosopher and miracle worker whose life became a legend of divine power.Figure · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇮🇹 Italy and 1 moreThe Fool A tarot card of unique status, depicting a wanderer or madman outside the numbered sequence.Text · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇮🇪 Ireland and 5 moreFairy ring A natural ring of mushrooms surrounded by folklore about dancing spirits and witches.Belief · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇮🇱 Israel and 2 moreLag BaOmerלַ״ג בָּעוֹמֶר A Jewish holiday marking the end of a mourning period with bonfires and outdoor playTradition · Speaking with spirits and the dead · Wonder and entertainment Living 🇹🇴 Tonga and 2 moreTongan mythologytala-ē-fonua The myths and legends of the Polynesian island nation of TongaTradition · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇱🇻 Latvia and 1 moreLatvian mythology A collection of myths about gods, spirits, and the afterlife from the Baltic region.Tradition · Speaking with spirits and the dead · Power and authority Living

🇬🇧 United Kingdom and 3 moreWelsh mythologyY Chwedlau The ancient legends of Wales and the Celtic Britons, preserved in medieval manuscripts.Tradition · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇪🇸 SpainFolklore of Spain The oral traditions, legends, and folktales of the Iberian PeninsulaTradition · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇬🇧 United KingdomCornish mythology The folk tales and legends of Cornwall, shared with Brittany and Wales.Tradition · Wonder and entertainment Historical 🇨🇱 ChileCaleuche A luminous ghost ship of Chilote mythology that sails the canals and seas of southern Chile.Figure · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇵🇪 Peru and 1 moreViracochaWiraqucha The supreme creator deity of the Andes, associated with the sea and civilization.Being · Power and authority · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇬🇧 United KingdomBeltane Fire Festival A modern Edinburgh performance celebrating the start of summer with fire and danceRite · Wonder and entertainment · Power and authority Living

🇯🇵 JapanKitsunebi狐火 Atmospheric ghost lights in Japanese folklore, often linked to foxes and natural phenomena.Belief · Wonder and entertainment · Luck and prosperity Historical

🇨🇳 ChinaElemental Mythic beings linked to earth, water, air, and fire in Renaissance occultism.Being · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇨🇦 CanadaSpoon bending A magic trick and paranormal claim involving the deformation of metal cutleryBelief · Wonder and entertainment · Power and authority Historical 🇮🇹 ItalySola Busca tarot The oldest complete 78-card tarot deck with unique illustrations and Roman numerals.Text · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇧🇷 BrazilThe Hairy LegPerna cabeluda A Brazilian urban legend of a detached leg that attacks people at nightFigure · Cursing and harm · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇨🇳 China and 1 moreHorse coin馬錢 (mǎ qián) A Chinese numismatic charm depicting horses, used as game pieces or gambling tokensCharm · Luck and prosperity · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇨🇳 China and 5 moreMoon rabbit月兔 (yuètù) A mythical figure seen in lunar markings, pounding elixirs or rice cakes across Asia and the Americas.Being · Wonder and entertainment Living

🇧🇫 Burkina Faso and 5 moreCosmic egg A mythological motif where the universe or a creator emerges from a primordial egg.Belief · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇯🇵 JapanAosaginohi青鷺火 A Japanese will-o'-the-wisp attributed to the glowing flight of herons at nightBelief · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇺🇸 United StatesHodag A fabricated American cryptid from Wisconsin folklore and tall talesFigure · Wonder and entertainment Historical 🇬🇧 United Kingdom and 1 moreThirteen Treasures of the Island of BritainTri Thlws ar Ddeg Ynys Prydain A collection of magical objects from late-medieval Welsh legendText · Wonder and entertainment Historical

🇺🇸 United States and 1 moreFearsome critters Tall tale animals from North American logging camps used to jest and explain the wild.Figure · Wonder and entertainment · Luck and prosperity Historical

🇪🇸 SpainAnjanaanˈhana / an.xa.nɜ Cantabrian fairies who protect forests and bring gifts to children.Being · Protection · Luck and prosperity Historical

Photo credits on this page

The small pictures above come from Wikimedia Commons under free licences. Some are cropped to fit.

Elemental: No machine-readable author provided. Ragesoss assumed (based on copyri, Public domain, source
Brocken spectre: Draceane, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
Spoon bending: Sgerbic, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
Gazu Hyakki Yagyō: Toriyama Sekien, Public domain, source
Mantra: Markrosenrosen, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
Aosaginohi: Koikawa Harumachi ja:恋川春町 (1744-1789), Public domain, source
Hodag: Gourami Watcher, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
Tarot: World Web Playing Card Museum, Public domain, source
Xana: John William Waterhouse, Public domain, source
Ashtamangala: Redtigerxyz, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
Harry Price: Unknown author, CC BY-SA 3.0 de, source
Apollonius of Tyana: Zde, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
The Fool: Johann Georg Rauch, Public domain, source
Fairy ring: User:Mrs skippy, Public domain, source
Horse coin: Etnografiska museet, CC BY 2.5, source
Lag BaOmer: Yoninah, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
Latvian mythology: Dezidor, CC BY 3.0, source
Welsh mythology: Unknown author, Public domain, source
Folklore of Spain: Mikipons, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
Cornish mythology: waterborough, Public domain, source
Viracocha: Pattych ( talk ), CC BY-SA 3.0, source
The Hairy Leg: Diógenes Montenegro, Public domain, source
Beltane Fire Festival: Stefan Schäfer, Lich, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
Kitsunebi: Abasaa, Public domain, source
The Magician: Pamela Colman Smith, Public domain, source
Daniel Dunglas Home: Nadar, Public domain, source
Norse mythology: Lorenz Frølich, Public domain, source
Colombian folklore: Unknown author, Public domain, source
Hex sign: Smallbones, CC0, source
Steilneset Memorial: Stylegar, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
Moon rabbit: An artist, Public domain, source
Cosmic egg: James Basire, 1730–1802 (engraver), Public domain, source
Fearsome critters: Coert Du Bois, Public domain, source
Caribbean folklore: Biblioteca Juvenil Mayaguez ( talk · contribs ), CC BY-SA 4.0, source
Pietro d'Abano: Marco Chemello (Wikimedia Italia), CC BY-SA 4.0, source
Jabir ibn Hayyan: Unknown author, Public domain, source
Luoshu Square: An unknown Tibetan artist, Public domain, source
Edward Kelley: Thomas Pennant, Public domain, source

The weekly digest

Every Monday: seven entries you may not know, what is on the calendar this week, and one rite drawn step by step.