Scholars and sceptics
Anthropologists, historians and investigators who study magic and test its claims.
Scholars and sceptics are the people who study magic from outside the practice: anthropologists, historians, folklorists, psychologists, scholars of religion and investigators who test claims. They have names such as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Marcel Mauss, Bronislaw Malinowski, Mary Douglas, Keith Thomas and Carlo Ginzburg, and also investigators such as James Randi. This page covers what they have found, how they disagree, and what their work has cost and changed. Their work has changed how the whole subject is understood.
Early theories
Nineteenth-century writers such as James Frazer treated magic as a mistaken early science, a view now widely rejected as arrogant and inaccurate. Later anthropologists, including Evans-Pritchard in his 1937 study of the Azande, showed that magical belief can be a consistent way of reasoning about misfortune. Mauss and Malinowski stressed its social role. Fieldwork, archives, laboratory studies and surveys are their main methods, and each field has its own debates and schools.
The history of witch trials
Historians have revised their view of the witch trials. Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane studied English village accusations, Carlo Ginzburg found the benandanti in Friuli, and Ronald Hutton has argued about the numbers and causes, and Silvia Federici links the persecution to the rise of capitalism, a thesis historians dispute. The older figure of nine million victims has been dropped, and estimates now run to tens of thousands of executions.
Testing claims
Sceptics test whether claims hold up. James Randi offered a prize for evidence of paranormal power that was never won, and organisations such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry investigate fraud. Researchers study why people believe: pattern-seeking, uncertainty and the wish to control events. The best sceptics aim to understand people, not to mock them. Sceptics hold that claims should be tested, and they have a long record of exposing cases such as spirit photography and fake healers.
Ethics of study
Scholars were often colonial officials or missionaries, and their reports shaped how Indigenous religions were named. Contemporary researchers work with communities, ask consent and respect closed knowledge. Practitioners sometimes object to being explained, and sceptics sometimes to being called closed-minded. The conversation continues, and this guide aims to stay neutral on whether magic works. Their critics reply that science cannot measure everything that matters to a community, and that explaining a ritual away is not the same as understanding it.
Scholars and sceptics on EveryJaadu
The entries written up so far, best known first.
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 1 moreBamberg witch trials
A mass execution campaign in a German prince-bishopric that killed around one thousand people between 1623 and 1632.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomSpectral evidence
Court testimony based on visions of spirits during historical witch trialsBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚦馃嚤 NetherlandsWitch trials in the Netherlands
A historical record of prosecutions and executions for sorcery in the Dutch Republic.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 Russia and 4 moreLady MiddayPoludnitsa
A Slavic noon spirit who watches over fields and punishes those who work during the hottest hours.Being 路 Cursing and harm 路 Protection Historical
馃嚜馃嚫 SpainBasque witch trials
A seventeenth-century Inquisition campaign against alleged witches in the Basque Country.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 5 moreWitch trials in the Holy Roman Empire
A wave of executions across Central Europe between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚦馃嚤 NetherlandsCornelius Loos
A Catholic priest who publicly opposed the European witch trials of the late 1500s.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 SwedenTors氓ker witch trials
The largest mass execution of witches in Swedish history, carried out in a single day.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomWitch trials in early modern Scotland
A period of judicial persecution where thousands were executed for alleged sorcery and diabolic pactsBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 1 moreWill-o'-the-wisp
A ghostly light in folklore that guides or misleads travellers over marshes and bogs.Belief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚪馃嚧 Romania and 5 moreVampire folklore
Global legends of blood-drinking spirits and undead revenantsBelief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Protection Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomBideford witch trial
The final English hangings for witchcraft in 1682.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyTrier witch trials
A series of mass executions in the Holy Roman Empire between 1581 and 1593.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceWitch trials in France
A fragmented history of legal persecution for sorcery across French regions and centuries.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚦 IndiaLeft-Hand and Right-Hand Paths
Two distinct orientations in occult magic, dividing taboo-breaking from orthodoxy.Tradition 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomSamlesbury witches
Three Lancashire women acquitted in a 1612 trial linked to anti-Catholic propagandaBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyWitches of Benevento
A medieval Italian legend of witches gathering under a walnut treeBelief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomWitch trials in England
A historical period of legal persecution for alleged sorcery in England from the 15th to the 18th centuryBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚨馃嚤 PolandWitch trials in Poland
A historical record of sorcery prosecutions and executions in Poland from the 15th to the 19th century.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 RussiaBlack magic
Magic traditionally defined by malevolent intent and selfish purposesBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚜馃嚜 Estonia and 1 moreWitch trials in Latvia and Estonia
Early modern persecutions of sorcery and paganism by Baltic German authoritiesBelief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Cleansing and purification Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomPaisley witches
A 1697 Scottish witch trial ending in mass execution after a child's illness sparked local panic.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 SwedenMora witch trial
A 1669 Swedish mass execution driven by child testimony and European hysteriaBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚦馃嚧 NorwayVard酶 witch trials
A major Scandinavian persecution of women accused of sorcery in 17th-century NorwayBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚠 Finland and 1 moreWitch trials in Finland
A historical record of legal persecution for magic in a region where men were common targets.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 SwedenWitch trials in Denmark
A history of legal executions and local panics against sorcery in early modern Denmark.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚟馃嚭 Hungary and 1 moreWitch trials in Hungary
A centuries-long series of persecutions for sorcery that ended with imperial decree.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreAradia
A figure of Italian folklore and modern pagan witchcraft, seen as a teacher of magic and liberation.Figure 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Revived
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 1 moreWitch's mark
A bodily mark believed to prove a pact with the Devil during early modern witch trialsBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomEnglish folklore
The myths, legends, and customs of England passed down through generations.Tradition 路 Protection 路 Cursing and harm Living
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyW眉rzburg witch trials
A mass execution of hundreds in a German Catholic principality during the Thirty Years WarBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreMedieval European magic
A broad category of ritual and natural practices in the Middle Ages, blending healing, divination, and religious belief.Tradition 路 Healing 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 5 moreWild Hunt
A spectral chase across Europe led by a mythic figure and ghostly riders.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 3 moreWitches' Sabbath
A legendary gathering of witches described in early modern trial records and folkloreBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomPendle witches
A 1612 series of English witch trials that resulted in ten executions near Pendle Hill.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 2 moreOccultism in Nazism
The study of alleged magical links to the Nazi regime and the myths that surround themBelief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 RussiaBlack magic
Magic used for evil or selfish purposes, and the beliefs surrounding itBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚜 Ireland and 5 moreSeventh son of a seventh son
A folklore belief that birth order grants supernatural healing or cursed powersBelief 路 Healing 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceLouviers possessions
A seventeenth-century French convent case of mass demonic possession and witchcraft accusationsBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 Russia and 1 moreUnclean force薪械褔懈褋褌褜
A Slavic term for evil spirits and the undead that inhabit the natural worldBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚪馃嚫 Serbia and 5 moreWolves in folklore, religion and mythology
A global survey of how cultures view the wolf as symbol, spirit or threatBelief 路 Power and authority 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚪馃嚧 Romania and 2 moreStrix蟽蟿蟻委尉
A classical bird of ill omen that evolved into a term for witches and vampires across Europe.Being 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 GreeceGello螕蔚位位蠋
A Greek demon of infancy and a class of beings blamed for infant death.Being 路 Cursing and harm 路 Protection Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreDusios
A Gaulish spirit type later classified as an incubus demon by early Christian writersBeing 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceLoudun possessionsaffaire des poss茅d茅es de Loudun
A 17th-century witchcraft trial in France involving alleged demonic possession by Ursuline nuns.Belief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceMagonia
A cloud realm of aerial sailors blamed for hail and stolen grain in medieval EuropeBelief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
Photo credits on this page
The small pictures above come from Wikimedia Commons under free licences. Some are cropped to fit.
- Occultism in Nazism: Peretz Kaminsky, Public domain, source
- Black magic: https://www.flickr.com/photos/eliogarcia/ (nick in flickr:creo que soy, CC BY 2.0, source
- Witch-cult hypothesis: Francisco Goya, Public domain, source
- North Berwick witch trials: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Mora witch trial: Unknown author Unknown author contemporary artist, Public domain, source
- Witch trials in Denmark: Rigsarkivet - Danish National Archives, CC BY-SA 2.0, source
- Unclean force: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Jiangshi: Dick Thomas Johnson, CC BY 2.0, source
- Baphomet: Eliphas Levi, Public domain, source
- Witch's mark: T. H. Matteson, Public domain, source
- English folklore: J. R. Skelton, Public domain, source
- W眉rzburg witch trials: Sweet Chily, Public domain, source
- Medieval European magic: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Wild Hunt: Peter Nicolai Arbo, Public domain, source
- Pendle witches: Dr Greg, CC BY 3.0, source
- Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology: Unknown author, CC0, source
- Strix: Prosthetic Head, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Bamberg witch trials: Berthold Werner, Public domain, source
- Gello: Filippino Lippi, Public domain, source
- Dusios: Eric Hunt, CC BY-SA 2.5, source
- Witch trials in the Netherlands: Mathje1963, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Lady Midday: 袙褨褖褍薪, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Basque witch trials: Alberto-g-rovi, CC BY 3.0, source
- Loudun possessions: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Witch trials in the Holy Roman Empire: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Tors氓ker witch trials: Y-n盲smannen, CC0, source
- Will-o'-the-wisp: Hermann Hendrich, Public domain, source
- Bideford witch trial: Totnesmartin, Public domain, source
- Witch trials in France: Unknown author, CC BY 4.0, source
- Samlesbury witches: Tom Oates, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Witches of Benevento: Guglielmo della Porta, CC0, source