Scholars and sceptics
Anthropologists, historians and investigators who study magic and test its claims.
Scholars and sceptics are the people who study magic from outside the practice: anthropologists, historians, folklorists, psychologists, scholars of religion and investigators who test claims. They have names such as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Marcel Mauss, Bronislaw Malinowski, Mary Douglas, Keith Thomas and Carlo Ginzburg, and also investigators such as James Randi. This page covers what they have found, how they disagree, and what their work has cost and changed. Their work has changed how the whole subject is understood.
Early theories
Nineteenth-century writers such as James Frazer treated magic as a mistaken early science, a view now widely rejected as arrogant and inaccurate. Later anthropologists, including Evans-Pritchard in his 1937 study of the Azande, showed that magical belief can be a consistent way of reasoning about misfortune. Mauss and Malinowski stressed its social role. Fieldwork, archives, laboratory studies and surveys are their main methods, and each field has its own debates and schools.
The history of witch trials
Historians have revised their view of the witch trials. Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane studied English village accusations, Carlo Ginzburg found the benandanti in Friuli, and Ronald Hutton has argued about the numbers and causes, and Silvia Federici links the persecution to the rise of capitalism, a thesis historians dispute. The older figure of nine million victims has been dropped, and estimates now run to tens of thousands of executions.
Testing claims
Sceptics test whether claims hold up. James Randi offered a prize for evidence of paranormal power that was never won, and organisations such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry investigate fraud. Researchers study why people believe: pattern-seeking, uncertainty and the wish to control events. The best sceptics aim to understand people, not to mock them. Sceptics hold that claims should be tested, and they have a long record of exposing cases such as spirit photography and fake healers.
Ethics of study
Scholars were often colonial officials or missionaries, and their reports shaped how Indigenous religions were named. Contemporary researchers work with communities, ask consent and respect closed knowledge. Practitioners sometimes object to being explained, and sceptics sometimes to being called closed-minded. The conversation continues, and this guide aims to stay neutral on whether magic works. Their critics reply that science cannot measure everything that matters to a community, and that explaining a ritual away is not the same as understanding it.
Scholars and sceptics on EveryJaadu
The entries written up so far, best known first.
RegionSouth AsiaSoutheast AsiaEast AsiaCentral Asia and the CaucasusMiddle EastNorth AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaEuropeNorth AmericaLatin America and the CaribbeanOceania
PurposeProtectionHealingSeeing and foretellingLuck and prosperityLove and attractionCursing and harmCleansing and purificationSpeaking with spirits and the deadChange and initiationBinding and oathsPower and authorityWonder and entertainment
BeliefHindu and TantricBuddhistJainMuslim and SufiJewishChristianSikhZoroastrianShinto and TaoistIndigenous and shamanicAfrican and Afro-diasporicPagan and NeopaganEsoteric and occultFolk and village customSecular and stageOther traditions
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 5 moreAleister Crowley
English occultist and founder of the religion of ThelemaText 路 Power and authority 路 Change and initiation Living
馃嚜馃嚫 Spain and 5 moreAlfonso X of Castileel Sabio
A medieval king who sponsored astronomical tables and translated works on magic and astrology.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚠馃嚩 Iraq and 5 moreGrimoire
A textbook containing instructions for spells, rituals, and the creation of magical objects.Text 路 Protection 路 Healing Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 4 moreTarottarocchi
A set of cards for games and divination, with roots in fifteenth-century ItalyText 路 Wonder and entertainment 路 Seeing and foretelling Living
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 2 more脡liphas L茅vi
A French writer who shaped modern occult thought and ceremonial magic.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomWiccan Rede
A moral guideline for Wiccans stating that actions should cause no harm.Text 路 Cursing and harm Living
馃嚜馃嚫 SpainDirectorium Inquisitorum
A 14th-century manual for inquisitors on heresy, magic, and trial procedureText 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomWilliam Lilly
A seventeenth-century English astrologer and author who shaped Western tradition.Text 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 1 moreNicholas Culpeper
An English herbalist and astrologer who translated medical texts into English for the poor.Text 路 Healing 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 Sweden and 4 moreEmanuel Swedenborg
An 18th-century Swedish scientist who became a mystic and claimed to visit the afterlife.Text 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Change and initiation Living
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyMarsilio Ficino
A Renaissance priest and philosopher who revived Plato and blended astrology with Christian theology.Text 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Healing Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreThe Fool
A tarot card of unique status, depicting a wanderer or madman outside the numbered sequence.Text 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚠馃嚜 Ireland and 1 moreOgham釟涐殤釟屷殣釟嬦殰
An early medieval script of notched lines used to carve Irish names on stone monuments.Text Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceEtteilla
The first professional tarot occultist who created a system for card divination.Text 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 3 moreRunes釟贬殺釟踞洘
An ancient Germanic script used for writing and magical signs.Text 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreNostradamus
A French astrologer and physician known for a book of poetic propheciesText 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyThe MagicianLe Bateleur
A tarot trump symbolizing power and the link between spirit and matterText 路 Power and authority 路 Wonder and entertainment Living
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 5 moreSator Square
A five-word Latin palindrome found in Roman ruins and medieval churchesCharm 路 Protection 路 Healing Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 3 moreRenaissance magic
A 15th and 16th century revival of magical arts blending philosophy, astrology, and hidden knowledge.Tradition 路 Power and authority 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 2 moreThe Holy Blood and the Holy Grail
A 1982 book proposing Jesus had a bloodline protected by a secret societyText 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyMalleus Maleficarum
A 15th-century manual on witchcraft written by Heinrich KramerText 路 Cursing and harm 路 Binding and oaths Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 1 moreJohn Dee
An English scholar and advisor to Elizabeth I who pursued angelic communication through scrying.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚨馃嚤 Poland and 1 moreMichael SendivogiusMicha艂 S臋dziw贸j
A Polish alchemist who discovered oxygen and wrote on the 'food of life'Text 路 Power and authority 路 Change and initiation Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 morePietro d'Abano
A medieval physician and astrologer accused of heresy and magic.Text 路 Healing 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 2 moreKey of SolomonClavicula Salomonis
A Renaissance grimoire attributed to King Solomon, detailing ritual preparations and invocations.Text 路 Cursing and harm 路 Love and attraction Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceThree Books of Occult PhilosophyDe occulta philosophia libri III
A Renaissance treatise on elemental, celestial and divine magicText 路 Healing 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 5 moreKabbalah拽址讘指旨诇指讛
An esoteric school of thought within Judaism focused on the hidden meanings of scripture and the divine.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Change and initiation Living
馃嚪馃嚫 Serbia and 3 moreSerbian folklore小褉锌褋泻懈 褎芯谢泻谢芯褉
The folk traditions and epic poetry of the Serbs, blending pre-Christian customs with Orthodox faith.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyChymical Wedding of Christian RosenkreutzChymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz anno 1459
An allegorical romance and Rosicrucian manifesto detailing a seven-day alchemical initiation.Text 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 2 moreWitchcraft Acts
A series of British laws that shifted from punishing witchcraft to punishing those who claimed to practice it.Text 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyBasil ValentineBasilius Valentinus
A pseudonymous alchemist whose chemical writings shaped early modern chemistry and hermetic tradition.Text 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomGeoffrey of MonmouthGruffudd ap Arthur
A medieval cleric whose writings shaped the King Arthur legend and British myth.Text 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚫 IcelandGaldrab贸k
An Icelandic grimoire of spells and staves from around 1600Text 路 Protection 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomGrimoire (sample)
A handbook of rites and names.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalySola Busca tarot
The oldest complete 78-card tarot deck with unique illustrations and Roman numerals.Text 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceChamali猫res tabletPlomb de Chamali猫res
A Gaulish lead tablet from a French spa, read as either a curse or a healing prayer.Text 路 Cursing and harm 路 Healing Historical
馃嚠馃嚜 IrelandLorica
A Hiberno-Scottish monastic prayer for protection against evilText 路 Protection Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceDictionnaire Infernal
A French demonology book cataloguing spirits and their hierarchies with engravings.Text 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 1 moreThirteen Treasures of the Island of BritainTri Thlws ar Ddeg Ynys Prydain
A collection of magical objects from late-medieval Welsh legendText 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 2 moreBevis of Hampton袩芯胁械褋褌褜 芯 袘芯胁械-泻芯褉芯谢械胁懈褔械
A medieval chivalric romance about a hero's exile and return across Europe and the Near EastText 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomTam Lin
A Scottish ballad about a fairy knight rescued by his mortal lover on Hallowe'enFigure 路 Love and attraction 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyGli ExperimentiGli Experimenti de la Ex.ma S.r Caterina da Furlj Matre de lo inllux.mo S.r Giouanni de Medici
A 16th-century manuscript of alchemical, medicinal, and cosmetic recipes by Caterina SforzaText 路 Healing 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 SwedenSaleby Runestone
A Swedish memorial stone raised by a husband for his wife, featuring an ancient curse.Text 路 Protection Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyBuch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit
A 15th-century German alchemical treatise that aligns chemical work with Christian theology.Text 路 Change and initiation Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreBooks of secrets
Early modern European compilations of recipes and formulae framed as hidden knowledgeText 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyLichtenberg's Avertissement
A satirical poster exposing stage magic as deceptionText 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomThe Book of Thoth
A guide to a tarot deck designed by an occultist and his collaboratorText 路 Power and authority 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚠馃嚫 Iceland and 1 moreBerkanan
A runic letter representing the birch tree across Germanic writing systems.Text Historical
Photo credits on this page
The small pictures above come from Wikimedia Commons under free licences. Some are cropped to fit.
- Alfonso X of Castile: Otto Posse (1847-1921), Public domain, source
- Grimoire: Bengt A. Lundberg, CC BY 2.5, source
- Tarot: World Web Playing Card Museum, Public domain, source
- 脡liphas L茅vi: Eliphas L茅vi [1810-1875], Public domain, source
- Witchcraft Act 1735: Richard van Bleeck, Public domain, source
- Directorium Inquisitorum: Nicol谩s Eymerich, Public domain, source
- Chamali猫res tablet: Unknown, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- William Lilly: Simon Harriyott, CC BY 2.0, source
- Nicholas Culpeper: Richard Gaywood, Public domain, source
- Emanuel Swedenborg: Carl Frederik von Breda, Public domain, source
- Marsilio Ficino: Marsilio Ficino, Public domain, source
- The Fool: Johann Georg Rauch, Public domain, source
- Ogham: Runologe, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Runes: Bengt Olof 脜RADSSON, CC BY 1.0, source
- Nostradamus: After C茅sar de Notre-Dame, Public domain, source
- The Magician: Pamela Colman Smith, Public domain, source
- Sator Square: M Disdero, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Renaissance magic: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Dictionnaire Infernal: Louis Le Breton, Public domain, source
- Bevis of Hampton: Anonymous Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Malleus Maleficarum: Johann Jakob Wick, Public domain, source
- John Dee: Unidentified painter, Public domain, source
- Michael Sendivogius: 艁uszczkiewicz, Public domain, source
- Gli Experimenti: Mattman723, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Saleby Runestone: Berig, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Pietro d'Abano: Marco Chemello (Wikimedia Italia), CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Lichtenberg's Avertissement: Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, Public domain, source
- Key of Solomon: Anonymous Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Aleister Crowley: Aleister Crowley, Public domain, source
- Three Books of Occult Philosophy: Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, Public domain, source
- Kabbalah: Joseph ben Abraham Gikatilla, Paulus Riccius, Leonhard Beck, Public domain, source
- Serbian folklore: Uro拧 Predi膰, Public domain, source
- Tam Lin: Richard Webb, CC BY-SA 2.0, source
- Basil Valentine: TomKidd, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Geoffrey of Monmouth: Colin Cheesman, CC BY-SA 2.0, source