Scholars and sceptics
Anthropologists, historians and investigators who study magic and test its claims.
Scholars and sceptics are the people who study magic from outside the practice: anthropologists, historians, folklorists, psychologists, scholars of religion and investigators who test claims. They have names such as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Marcel Mauss, Bronislaw Malinowski, Mary Douglas, Keith Thomas and Carlo Ginzburg, and also investigators such as James Randi. This page covers what they have found, how they disagree, and what their work has cost and changed. Their work has changed how the whole subject is understood.
Early theories
Nineteenth-century writers such as James Frazer treated magic as a mistaken early science, a view now widely rejected as arrogant and inaccurate. Later anthropologists, including Evans-Pritchard in his 1937 study of the Azande, showed that magical belief can be a consistent way of reasoning about misfortune. Mauss and Malinowski stressed its social role. Fieldwork, archives, laboratory studies and surveys are their main methods, and each field has its own debates and schools.
The history of witch trials
Historians have revised their view of the witch trials. Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane studied English village accusations, Carlo Ginzburg found the benandanti in Friuli, and Ronald Hutton has argued about the numbers and causes, and Silvia Federici links the persecution to the rise of capitalism, a thesis historians dispute. The older figure of nine million victims has been dropped, and estimates now run to tens of thousands of executions.
Testing claims
Sceptics test whether claims hold up. James Randi offered a prize for evidence of paranormal power that was never won, and organisations such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry investigate fraud. Researchers study why people believe: pattern-seeking, uncertainty and the wish to control events. The best sceptics aim to understand people, not to mock them. Sceptics hold that claims should be tested, and they have a long record of exposing cases such as spirit photography and fake healers.
Ethics of study
Scholars were often colonial officials or missionaries, and their reports shaped how Indigenous religions were named. Contemporary researchers work with communities, ask consent and respect closed knowledge. Practitioners sometimes object to being explained, and sceptics sometimes to being called closed-minded. The conversation continues, and this guide aims to stay neutral on whether magic works. Their critics reply that science cannot measure everything that matters to a community, and that explaining a ritual away is not the same as understanding it.
Scholars and sceptics on EveryJaadu
The entries written up so far, best known first.
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 2 moreKey of SolomonClavicula Salomonis
A Renaissance grimoire attributed to King Solomon, detailing ritual preparations and invocations.Text 路 Cursing and harm 路 Love and attraction Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 1 moreWill-o'-the-wisp
A ghostly light in folklore that guides or misleads travellers over marshes and bogs.Belief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyWitch trials in Italy
Historic legal proceedings against alleged witches across Italian states from the 14th to 18th centuries.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomSpectral evidence
Court testimony based on visions of spirits during historical witch trialsBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 SwedenTors氓ker witch trials
The largest mass execution of witches in Swedish history, carried out in a single day.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomWitch trials in early modern Scotland
A period of judicial persecution where thousands were executed for alleged sorcery and diabolic pactsBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 Russia and 4 moreLady MiddayPoludnitsa
A Slavic noon spirit who watches over fields and punishes those who work during the hottest hours.Being 路 Cursing and harm 路 Protection Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 5 moreWitch trials in the Holy Roman Empire
A wave of executions across Central Europe between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚨馃嚤 PolandWitch trials in Poland
A historical record of sorcery prosecutions and executions in Poland from the 15th to the 19th century.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 Sweden and 2 moreMj枚lnirMj谦llnir
The hammer of the Norse thunder god Thor, used as a weapon and for blessingsBeing 路 Cursing and harm 路 Protection Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 RussiaBlack magic
Magic traditionally defined by malevolent intent and selfish purposesBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 1 moreBamberg witch trials
A mass execution campaign in a German prince-bishopric that killed around one thousand people between 1623 and 1632.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚜馃嚫 SpainBasque witch trials
A seventeenth-century Inquisition campaign against alleged witches in the Basque Country.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyMalleus Maleficarum
A 15th-century manual on witchcraft written by Heinrich KramerText 路 Cursing and harm 路 Binding and oaths Historical
馃嚦馃嚤 NetherlandsWitch trials in the Netherlands
A historical record of prosecutions and executions for sorcery in the Dutch Republic.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚦馃嚧 NorwayWitch trials in Norway
A wave of executions and legal persecution for sorcery in early modern Norway.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreDruiddruides
A learned priestly class of the ancient Celts in Gaul and BritainTradition 路 Cursing and harm 路 Protection Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomPendle witches
A 1612 series of English witch trials that resulted in ten executions near Pendle Hill.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyPhilipp Adolf von Ehrenberg
A German prince-bishop who directed a massive witch-hunt in the 1620sFigure 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyAlp
A Germanic spirit that presses on sleepers and drinks milkBeing 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 2 moreThe Holy Blood and the Holy Grail
A 1982 book proposing Jesus had a bloodline protected by a secret societyText 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 SwedenMora witch trial
A 1669 Swedish mass execution driven by child testimony and European hysteriaBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚦馃嚧 NorwayVard酶 witch trials
A major Scandinavian persecution of women accused of sorcery in 17th-century NorwayBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚠 Finland and 1 moreWitch trials in Finland
A historical record of legal persecution for magic in a region where men were common targets.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 SwedenWitch trials in Denmark
A history of legal executions and local panics against sorcery in early modern Denmark.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚟馃嚭 Hungary and 1 moreWitch trials in Hungary
A centuries-long series of persecutions for sorcery that ended with imperial decree.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomPricking
A method used during European witch trials to locate a supposed insensitive mark on an accused person.Rite 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 Russia and 2 moreUpi贸r褍锌褨芯褉
A demonic spirit from Slavic and Turkic folklore that is believed to return from the dead to feed on the living.Being 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚜馃嚫 SpainDirectorium Inquisitorum
A 14th-century manual for inquisitors on heresy, magic, and trial procedureText 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚦 India and 2 moreTrial by ordeal
An ancient judicial test where a dangerous physical trial determined guilt or innocenceRite 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚦馃嚤 NetherlandsCornelius Loos
A Catholic priest who publicly opposed the European witch trials of the late 1500s.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreAradia
A figure of Italian folklore and modern pagan witchcraft, seen as a teacher of magic and liberation.Figure 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Revived
馃嚜馃嚜 Estonia and 1 moreWitch trials in Latvia and Estonia
Early modern persecutions of sorcery and paganism by Baltic German authoritiesBelief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Cleansing and purification Historical
馃嚠馃嚫 Iceland and 1 moreNornsnornir
Fate-weaving figures from Norse myth who shape human destiny and tend the world tree.Being 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomBoggart
A malevolent household spirit from northern English folkloreBeing 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 4 moreWitch trials in the early modern period
A wave of prosecutions across Europe and British America from the 1400s to the late 1700s.Tradition 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 1 moreWitch's mark
A bodily mark believed to prove a pact with the Devil during early modern witch trialsBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomPaisley witches
A 1697 Scottish witch trial ending in mass execution after a child's illness sparked local panic.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomEnglish folklore
The myths, legends, and customs of England passed down through generations.Tradition 路 Protection 路 Cursing and harm Living
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyW眉rzburg witch trials
A mass execution of hundreds in a German Catholic principality during the Thirty Years WarBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 3 moreChristian Kabbalah
A Renaissance effort to read Christian theology into Jewish mysticismTradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreMedieval European magic
A broad category of ritual and natural practices in the Middle Ages, blending healing, divination, and religious belief.Tradition 路 Healing 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 5 moreWild Hunt
A spectral chase across Europe led by a mythic figure and ghostly riders.Belief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomWiccan Rede
A moral guideline for Wiccans stating that actions should cause no harm.Text 路 Cursing and harm Living
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 3 moreWitches' Sabbath
A legendary gathering of witches described in early modern trial records and folkloreBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 3 moreJack
A trickster hero from English folklore who outwits giants and oppressorsFigure 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Living
馃嚠馃嚜 IrelandBodach
A Gaelic trickster figure used to frighten children and warn of deathFigure 路 Cursing and harm 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚝馃嚠 Finland and 5 moreMolybdomancy
A divination method using molten metal poured into water to read omensRite 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Cursing and harm Living
Photo credits on this page
The small pictures above come from Wikimedia Commons under free licences. Some are cropped to fit.
- Black magic: https://www.flickr.com/photos/eliogarcia/ (nick in flickr:creo que soy, CC BY 2.0, source
- Trial by ordeal: James Sibree, Public domain, source
- Witch-cult hypothesis: Francisco Goya, Public domain, source
- Alp: Henry Fuseli, Public domain, source
- North Berwick witch trials: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Mora witch trial: Unknown author Unknown author contemporary artist, Public domain, source
- Witch trials in Denmark: Rigsarkivet - Danish National Archives, CC BY-SA 2.0, source
- Pricking: Heinrichkramer, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Upi贸r: 袙褨褖褍薪, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Directorium Inquisitorum: Nicol谩s Eymerich, Public domain, source
- Norns: file: James Steakley ; artwork: Gustav Heidenreich, Public domain, source
- Boggart: Katolophyromai, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Witch's mark: T. H. Matteson, Public domain, source
- English folklore: J. R. Skelton, Public domain, source
- W眉rzburg witch trials: Sweet Chily, Public domain, source
- Medieval European magic: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Wild Hunt: Peter Nicolai Arbo, Public domain, source
- Jack: Internet Archive Book Images, No restrictions, source
- Molybdomancy: Micha L. Rieser, Attribution, source
- Pendle witches: Dr Greg, CC BY 3.0, source
- Witch trials in the early modern period: Johann Jakob Wick, Public domain, source
- Bamberg witch trials: Berthold Werner, Public domain, source
- Mj枚lnir: M氓rten Eskil Winge, Public domain, source
- Malleus Maleficarum: Johann Jakob Wick, Public domain, source
- Witch trials in the Netherlands: Mathje1963, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Druid: Bernard de Montfaucon, Public domain, source
- Lady Midday: 袙褨褖褍薪, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Basque witch trials: Alberto-g-rovi, CC BY 3.0, source
- Witch trials in the Holy Roman Empire: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Tors氓ker witch trials: Y-n盲smannen, CC0, source
- Key of Solomon: Anonymous Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Will-o'-the-wisp: Hermann Hendrich, Public domain, source