Scholars and sceptics
Anthropologists, historians and investigators who study magic and test its claims.
Scholars and sceptics are the people who study magic from outside the practice: anthropologists, historians, folklorists, psychologists, scholars of religion and investigators who test claims. They have names such as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Marcel Mauss, Bronislaw Malinowski, Mary Douglas, Keith Thomas and Carlo Ginzburg, and also investigators such as James Randi. This page covers what they have found, how they disagree, and what their work has cost and changed. Their work has changed how the whole subject is understood.
Early theories
Nineteenth-century writers such as James Frazer treated magic as a mistaken early science, a view now widely rejected as arrogant and inaccurate. Later anthropologists, including Evans-Pritchard in his 1937 study of the Azande, showed that magical belief can be a consistent way of reasoning about misfortune. Mauss and Malinowski stressed its social role. Fieldwork, archives, laboratory studies and surveys are their main methods, and each field has its own debates and schools.
The history of witch trials
Historians have revised their view of the witch trials. Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane studied English village accusations, Carlo Ginzburg found the benandanti in Friuli, and Ronald Hutton has argued about the numbers and causes, and Silvia Federici links the persecution to the rise of capitalism, a thesis historians dispute. The older figure of nine million victims has been dropped, and estimates now run to tens of thousands of executions.
Testing claims
Sceptics test whether claims hold up. James Randi offered a prize for evidence of paranormal power that was never won, and organisations such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry investigate fraud. Researchers study why people believe: pattern-seeking, uncertainty and the wish to control events. The best sceptics aim to understand people, not to mock them. Sceptics hold that claims should be tested, and they have a long record of exposing cases such as spirit photography and fake healers.
Ethics of study
Scholars were often colonial officials or missionaries, and their reports shaped how Indigenous religions were named. Contemporary researchers work with communities, ask consent and respect closed knowledge. Practitioners sometimes object to being explained, and sceptics sometimes to being called closed-minded. The conversation continues, and this guide aims to stay neutral on whether magic works. Their critics reply that science cannot measure everything that matters to a community, and that explaining a ritual away is not the same as understanding it.
Scholars and sceptics on EveryJaadu
The entries written up so far, best known first.
RegionSouth AsiaSoutheast AsiaEast AsiaCentral Asia and the CaucasusMiddle EastNorth AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaEuropeNorth AmericaLatin America and the CaribbeanOceania
PurposeProtectionHealingSeeing and foretellingLuck and prosperityLove and attractionCursing and harmCleansing and purificationSpeaking with spirits and the deadChange and initiationBinding and oathsPower and authorityWonder and entertainment
BeliefHindu and TantricBuddhistJainMuslim and SufiJewishChristianSikhZoroastrianShinto and TaoistIndigenous and shamanicAfrican and Afro-diasporicPagan and NeopaganEsoteric and occultFolk and village customSecular and stageOther traditions
馃嚠馃嚦 India and 5 moreAstrology
A divinatory practice that reads human fate through the positions of celestial bodies.Belief 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Luck and prosperity Living
馃嚠馃嚩 Iraq and 5 moreGrimoire
A textbook containing instructions for spells, rituals, and the creation of magical objects.Text 路 Protection 路 Healing Historical
馃嚭馃嚫 United States and 5 moreSatanism
A modern set of beliefs using the figure of Satan as a symbol or deity.Tradition 路 Power and authority 路 Cursing and harm Living
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 2 more脡liphas L茅vi
A French writer who shaped modern occult thought and ceremonial magic.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚜馃嚞 Egypt and 5 moreHermetica
A collection of ancient texts attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, covering magic, alchemy and philosophy.Text 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Change and initiation Historical
馃嚭馃嚫 United StatesThe Kybalion
A 1908 book presenting seven principles of mental philosophy as ancient Hermetic wisdomText 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚫馃嚦 Senegal and 5 morePentagram蟺蔚谓蟿维纬蟻伪渭渭慰谓
A five-pointed star figure used across history for protection, ritual, and cosmologyCharm 路 Protection 路 Binding and oaths Living
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceEtteilla
The first professional tarot occultist who created a system for card divination.Text 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 Russia and 7 moreSlavic Native Faith袪芯写薪芯胁械褉懈械
A modern polytheistic movement drawing on Slavic folklore, romanticism, and global spiritual traditions.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreNostradamus
A French astrologer and physician known for a book of poetic propheciesText 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyThe MagicianLe Bateleur
A tarot trump symbolizing power and the link between spirit and matterText 路 Power and authority 路 Wonder and entertainment Living
馃嚜馃嚬 EthiopiaPlanetary hours
A system assigning celestial rulers to each hour of the day and weekTradition 路 Power and authority 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 3 moreRenaissance magic
A 15th and 16th century revival of magical arts blending philosophy, astrology, and hidden knowledge.Tradition 路 Power and authority 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚜馃嚫 Spain and 2 morePicatrix睾丕賷丞 丕賱丨賰賷賲
A medieval Arabic handbook of talismanic magic and astrologyText 路 Power and authority 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 1 moreJohn Dee
An English scholar and advisor to Elizabeth I who pursued angelic communication through scrying.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚚馃嚦 China and 4 moreQimen Dunjia濂囬杸閬佺敳
An ancient Chinese divination system mapping time and space for strategic decision-makingOracle 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Revived
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomHermetic Order of the Golden DawnOrdo Hermeticus Aurorae Aureae
A late-19th-century British magical order that shaped modern Western occultismTradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Change and initiation Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 2 moreKey of SolomonClavicula Salomonis
A Renaissance grimoire attributed to King Solomon, detailing ritual preparations and invocations.Text 路 Cursing and harm 路 Love and attraction Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 5 moreAleister Crowley
English occultist and founder of the religion of ThelemaText 路 Power and authority 路 Change and initiation Living
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceThree Books of Occult PhilosophyDe occulta philosophia libri III
A Renaissance treatise on elemental, celestial and divine magicText 路 Healing 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚠馃嚦 IndiaLeft-Hand and Right-Hand Paths
Two distinct orientations in occult magic, dividing taboo-breaking from orthodoxy.Tradition 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚞馃嚪 Greece and 2 moreNumerology
The belief that numbers hold hidden meanings and influence human events.Belief 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚥馃嚞 Madagascar and 4 moreGeomancy
A cross-cultural system of divination using earth, sand, and landforms to read the future or align spaces.Oracle 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyChymical Wedding of Christian RosenkreutzChymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz anno 1459
An allegorical romance and Rosicrucian manifesto detailing a seven-day alchemical initiation.Text 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyBasil ValentineBasilius Valentinus
A pseudonymous alchemist whose chemical writings shaped early modern chemistry and hermetic tradition.Text 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomGrimoire (sample)
A handbook of rites and names.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚠馃嚪 Iran and 3 moreDaeva饜瑳饜瑎饜瑝饜瑤饜瑤饜瑎
A Zoroastrian entity that evolved from rejected gods to personifications of evil.Being 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 2 moreOccultism in Nazism
The study of alleged magical links to the Nazi regime and the myths that surround themBelief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚦 India and 1 moreNeotantra啶ㄠさ啶むえ啷嵿い啷嵿ぐ (navatantra)
A Western movement blending Tantra with modern views on sacred sexualityTradition 路 Love and attraction 路 Change and initiation Living
馃嚠馃嚪 Iran and 1 moreMundane astrology
A branch of astrology that reads the horoscopes of nations and governments instead of individuals.Tradition 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚜馃嚞 Egypt and 4 moreThelema
A Western esoteric philosophy centered on discovering and following one's True WillTradition 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyArcheosofica
A school of esoteric Christianity founded in Rome that teaches ascetic disciplines and magical theory.Tradition 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Living
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 2 moreLocational astrology
A branch of astrology that maps planetary influences to specific places on Earth.Tradition 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚠馃嚤 Israel and 5 moreAstaroth
An arch-demon in Western occultism, derived from the ancient goddess Astarte.Being 路 Power and authority 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚭馃嚫 United States and 1 moreNew Thought
A spiritual philosophy linking mental states to physical health and prosperityTradition 路 Healing 路 Luck and prosperity Living
馃嚭馃嚫 United States and 4 moreAMORCAntiquus Mysticusque Ordo Rosae Crucis
A US-based Rosicrucian order with global lodges and a focus on correspondence study.Tradition 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚡馃嚨 JapanAllocer
A duke of demons in grimoires who teaches sciences and commands legionsBeing 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚭馃嚫 United StatesAshtar
A channeled extraterrestrial figure central to mid-century American ufology and New Age spiritualityBeing 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Seeing and foretelling Living
馃嚠馃嚦 IndiaQutb賯胤亘
A Sufi spiritual leader who acts as the unseen axis of a cosmic hierarchy.Figure 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 2 moreFraternitas Saturni
A German esoteric order focused on Saturn magic and astrological teachingsTradition 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 4 moreIlluminates of Thanateros
An international group dedicated to practical chaos magic and experimental ritual workTradition 路 Power and authority 路 Change and initiation Living
馃嚠馃嚦 IndiaWater (classical element)
A classical substance linked to emotion and intuition in Greek, Indian, and Western esoteric traditions.Substance 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 2 moreOsirian Egyptian OrderOrdine Osirideo Egizio
An Italian esoteric society tracing its roots to 18th-century Naples and ancient Hermetic traditions.Tradition 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚭馃嚫 United StatesDreaming the Dark
A 1982 book by Starhawk linking magic, sex, and politicsText 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 GreeceAstrology and astronomy
Two disciplines that shared a history before splitting into science and divinationTradition 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚭馃嚫 United StatesKrotona
A historic Theosophical center and intentional community in CaliforniaTradition 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 1 moreReligious aspects of Nazism
The study of how Nazi ideology borrowed religious forms and esoteric beliefs to build a political movement.Tradition 路 Power and authority 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚠馃嚪 Iran and 5 moreAxis mundi
A concept describing a central point connecting the earthly and heavenly realms.Belief 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Power and authority Historical
Photo credits on this page
The small pictures above come from Wikimedia Commons under free licences. Some are cropped to fit.
- Occultism in Nazism: Peretz Kaminsky, Public domain, source
- Grimoire: Bengt A. Lundberg, CC BY 2.5, source
- Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa: Jean-Louis Durant (1654-1718), Public domain, source
- Numerology: Pietro Bongo, Public domain, source
- Sex magic: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- 脡liphas L茅vi: Eliphas L茅vi [1810-1875], Public domain, source
- Astrology: Wilfredor, CC0, source
- The Kybalion: American Libraries, Public domain, source
- Archeosofica: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Div: Unknown Calligrapher, Public domain, source
- Baphomet: Eliphas Levi, Public domain, source
- Pentagram: Tomruen, Attribution, source
- Satanism: Alexandre Cabanel, Public domain, source
- Slavic Native Faith: Union of Slavic Rodnover Communities (小芯褞蟹 小谢邪胁褟薪褋泻懈褏 袨斜褖懈薪 小谢邪胁褟薪褋泻芯泄, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Nostradamus: After C茅sar de Notre-Dame, Public domain, source
- The Magician: Pamela Colman Smith, Public domain, source
- Renaissance magic: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Picatrix: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Astaroth: M. Jarrault, Public domain, source
- Allocer: Louis Le Breton, Public domain, source
- Ashtar: Evedawn99, Public domain, source
- John Dee: Unidentified painter, Public domain, source
- Key of Solomon: Anonymous Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Aleister Crowley: Aleister Crowley, Public domain, source
- Three Books of Occult Philosophy: Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, Public domain, source
- Axis mundi: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Mundane astrology: Andreas Cellarius, Public domain, source
- Geomancy: Jacopo188, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Astrology and astronomy: anonymous, Public domain, source
- Religious aspects of Nazism: Unknown author, CC BY-SA 3.0 de, source
- Basil Valentine: TomKidd, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- New Thought: Nyttend, Public domain, source