Scholars and sceptics
Anthropologists, historians and investigators who study magic and test its claims.
Scholars and sceptics are the people who study magic from outside the practice: anthropologists, historians, folklorists, psychologists, scholars of religion and investigators who test claims. They have names such as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Marcel Mauss, Bronislaw Malinowski, Mary Douglas, Keith Thomas and Carlo Ginzburg, and also investigators such as James Randi. This page covers what they have found, how they disagree, and what their work has cost and changed. Their work has changed how the whole subject is understood.
Early theories
Nineteenth-century writers such as James Frazer treated magic as a mistaken early science, a view now widely rejected as arrogant and inaccurate. Later anthropologists, including Evans-Pritchard in his 1937 study of the Azande, showed that magical belief can be a consistent way of reasoning about misfortune. Mauss and Malinowski stressed its social role. Fieldwork, archives, laboratory studies and surveys are their main methods, and each field has its own debates and schools.
The history of witch trials
Historians have revised their view of the witch trials. Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane studied English village accusations, Carlo Ginzburg found the benandanti in Friuli, and Ronald Hutton has argued about the numbers and causes, and Silvia Federici links the persecution to the rise of capitalism, a thesis historians dispute. The older figure of nine million victims has been dropped, and estimates now run to tens of thousands of executions.
Testing claims
Sceptics test whether claims hold up. James Randi offered a prize for evidence of paranormal power that was never won, and organisations such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry investigate fraud. Researchers study why people believe: pattern-seeking, uncertainty and the wish to control events. The best sceptics aim to understand people, not to mock them. Sceptics hold that claims should be tested, and they have a long record of exposing cases such as spirit photography and fake healers.
Ethics of study
Scholars were often colonial officials or missionaries, and their reports shaped how Indigenous religions were named. Contemporary researchers work with communities, ask consent and respect closed knowledge. Practitioners sometimes object to being explained, and sceptics sometimes to being called closed-minded. The conversation continues, and this guide aims to stay neutral on whether magic works. Their critics reply that science cannot measure everything that matters to a community, and that explaining a ritual away is not the same as understanding it.
Scholars and sceptics on EveryJaadu
The entries written up so far, best known first.
RegionSouth AsiaSoutheast AsiaEast AsiaCentral Asia and the CaucasusMiddle EastNorth AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaEuropeNorth AmericaLatin America and the CaribbeanOceania
PurposeProtectionHealingSeeing and foretellingLuck and prosperityLove and attractionCursing and harmCleansing and purificationSpeaking with spirits and the deadChange and initiationBinding and oathsPower and authorityWonder and entertainment
BeliefHindu and TantricBuddhistJainMuslim and SufiJewishChristianSikhZoroastrianShinto and TaoistIndigenous and shamanicAfrican and Afro-diasporicPagan and NeopaganEsoteric and occultFolk and village customSecular and stageOther traditions
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceThree Books of Occult PhilosophyDe occulta philosophia libri III
A Renaissance treatise on elemental, celestial and divine magicText 路 Healing 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚜馃嚫 Spain and 5 moreAlfonso X of Castileel Sabio
A medieval king who sponsored astronomical tables and translated works on magic and astrology.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚠馃嚩 Iraq and 5 moreGrimoire
A textbook containing instructions for spells, rituals, and the creation of magical objects.Text 路 Protection 路 Healing Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 2 more脡liphas L茅vi
A French writer who shaped modern occult thought and ceremonial magic.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreCernunnos
An antlered Celtic deity associated with nature and fertilityBeing 路 Power and authority 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚜馃嚫 SpainDirectorium Inquisitorum
A 14th-century manual for inquisitors on heresy, magic, and trial procedureText 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomWilliam Lilly
A seventeenth-century English astrologer and author who shaped Western tradition.Text 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 1 moreNicholas Culpeper
An English herbalist and astrologer who translated medical texts into English for the poor.Text 路 Healing 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreAradia
A figure of Italian folklore and modern pagan witchcraft, seen as a teacher of magic and liberation.Figure 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Revived
馃嚠馃嚫 Iceland and 1 moreNornsnornir
Fate-weaving figures from Norse myth who shape human destiny and tend the world tree.Being 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚤馃嚮 Latvia and 1 moreLatvian mythology
A collection of myths about gods, spirits, and the afterlife from the Baltic region.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceEtteilla
The first professional tarot occultist who created a system for card divination.Text 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 GreeceAncient Greek folklore
The oral stories, music and rituals of the ancient GreeksTradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 3 moreRunes釟贬殺釟踞洘
An ancient Germanic script used for writing and magical signs.Text 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 Greece and 5 moreNecromancy
A form of divination that seeks to speak with the dead for hidden knowledge.Tradition 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 Russia and 7 moreSlavic Native Faith袪芯写薪芯胁械褉懈械
A modern polytheistic movement drawing on Slavic folklore, romanticism, and global spiritual traditions.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomBeltane Fire Festival
A modern Edinburgh performance celebrating the start of summer with fire and danceRite 路 Wonder and entertainment 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreNostradamus
A French astrologer and physician known for a book of poetic propheciesText 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚜 Ireland and 2 moreTriquetra
A three-arc knot used in medieval art and modern pop culturePower and authority Living
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyThe MagicianLe Bateleur
A tarot trump symbolizing power and the link between spirit and matterText 路 Power and authority 路 Wonder and entertainment Living
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 3 moreRenaissance magic
A 15th and 16th century revival of magical arts blending philosophy, astrology, and hidden knowledge.Tradition 路 Power and authority 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 Sweden and 3 moreTyrT媒r
A Germanic deity of war and oaths, known for sacrificing his hand to a wolfBeing 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomGeoffrey of MonmouthGruffudd ap Arthur
A medieval cleric whose writings shaped the King Arthur legend and British myth.Text 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 Sweden and 2 moreMj枚lnirMj谦llnir
The hammer of the Norse thunder god Thor, used as a weapon and for blessingsBeing 路 Cursing and harm 路 Protection Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 1 moreJohn Dee
An English scholar and advisor to Elizabeth I who pursued angelic communication through scrying.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚨馃嚤 Poland and 1 moreMichael SendivogiusMicha艂 S臋dziw贸j
A Polish alchemist who discovered oxygen and wrote on the 'food of life'Text 路 Power and authority 路 Change and initiation Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomHermetic Order of the Golden DawnOrdo Hermeticus Aurorae Aureae
A late-19th-century British magical order that shaped modern Western occultismTradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Change and initiation Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 2 moreKey of SolomonClavicula Salomonis
A Renaissance grimoire attributed to King Solomon, detailing ritual preparations and invocations.Text 路 Cursing and harm 路 Love and attraction Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 5 moreCount of St. GermainComte de Saint Germain
An 18th-century European adventurer known for alchemy, music, and claims of immortality.Figure 路 Power and authority 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 GreeceTriple Goddess
A Neopagan deity representing three female life stages and lunar phasesBeing 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚜馃嚫 SpainMaslama al-Majriti兀亘賵 丕賱賯丕爻賲 賲爻賱賲丞 亘賳 兀丨賲丿 丕賱賲噩乇賷胤賷
A tenth-century scholar of alchemy and astronomy in Islamic Spain.Figure 路 Wonder and entertainment 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 5 moreAleister Crowley
English occultist and founder of the religion of ThelemaText 路 Power and authority 路 Change and initiation Living
馃嚜馃嚞 Egypt and 2 moreNatural magic
A historical tradition exploring hidden forces in the physical worldTradition 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚦 IndiaLeft-Hand and Right-Hand Paths
Two distinct orientations in occult magic, dividing taboo-breaking from orthodoxy.Tradition 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚞馃嚪 Greece and 2 moreNumerology
The belief that numbers hold hidden meanings and influence human events.Belief 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚪馃嚫 Serbia and 3 moreSerbian folklore小褉锌褋泻懈 褎芯谢泻谢芯褉
The folk traditions and epic poetry of the Serbs, blending pre-Christian customs with Orthodox faith.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚦馃嚧 Norway and 2 moreValknut
A symbol of three interlocked triangles found on Germanic artifacts and used in modern Heathenry.Belief 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚠馃嚫 IcelandIcelandic magical stavesgaldrastafir
Sigils from Icelandic grimoires believed to hold magical powerCharm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyChymical Wedding of Christian RosenkreutzChymische Hochzeit Christiani Rosencreutz anno 1459
An allegorical romance and Rosicrucian manifesto detailing a seven-day alchemical initiation.Text 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 3 moreEdward Kelley
An English occultist and scryer who worked with John Dee to contact angels and practice alchemy.Figure 路 Power and authority 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyBasil ValentineBasilius Valentinus
A pseudonymous alchemist whose chemical writings shaped early modern chemistry and hermetic tradition.Text 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomGrimoire (sample)
A handbook of rites and names.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚝馃嚠 Finland and 1 moreSampo
A magical mill or world pillar in Finnish and Estonian mythology that produces wealth.Figure 路 Luck and prosperity 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 2 moreOccultism in Nazism
The study of alleged magical links to the Nazi regime and the myths that surround themBelief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚜馃嚞 Egypt and 4 moreThelema
A Western esoteric philosophy centered on discovering and following one's True WillTradition 路 Change and initiation 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyArcheosofica
A school of esoteric Christianity founded in Rome that teaches ascetic disciplines and magical theory.Tradition 路 Power and authority 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Living
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 2 moreLocational astrology
A branch of astrology that maps planetary influences to specific places on Earth.Tradition 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚞馃嚪 GreeceGreek divination
Ancient methods of consulting deities for prophecy and omens in Greek cultureOracle 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Power and authority Historical
Photo credits on this page
The small pictures above come from Wikimedia Commons under free licences. Some are cropped to fit.
- Sampo: V盲in枚 Blomstedt, Public domain, source
- Alfonso X of Castile: Otto Posse (1847-1921), Public domain, source
- Occultism in Nazism: Peretz Kaminsky, Public domain, source
- Grimoire: Bengt A. Lundberg, CC BY 2.5, source
- Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa: Jean-Louis Durant (1654-1718), Public domain, source
- Greek divination: Berthold Werner, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Numerology: Pietro Bongo, Public domain, source
- Sex magic: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- 脡liphas L茅vi: Eliphas L茅vi [1810-1875], Public domain, source
- Cernunnos: Nationalmuseet, Roberto Fortuna og Kira Ursem, Public domain, source
- Directorium Inquisitorum: Nicol谩s Eymerich, Public domain, source
- Archeosofica: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- William Lilly: Simon Harriyott, CC BY 2.0, source
- Nicholas Culpeper: Richard Gaywood, Public domain, source
- Norns: file: James Steakley ; artwork: Gustav Heidenreich, Public domain, source
- Baphomet: Eliphas Levi, Public domain, source
- Latvian mythology: Dezidor, CC BY 3.0, source
- Runes: Bengt Olof 脜RADSSON, CC BY 1.0, source
- Necromancy: Unknown author, CC BY 4.0, source
- Slavic Native Faith: Union of Slavic Rodnover Communities (小芯褞蟹 小谢邪胁褟薪褋泻懈褏 袨斜褖懈薪 小谢邪胁褟薪褋泻芯泄, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Beltane Fire Festival: Stefan Sch盲fer, Lich, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Nostradamus: After C茅sar de Notre-Dame, Public domain, source
- Triquetra: Wiglaf at English Wikipedia, Public domain, source
- The Magician: Pamela Colman Smith, Public domain, source
- Renaissance magic: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Tyr: Gunnar Creutz, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Geoffrey of Monmouth: Colin Cheesman, CC BY-SA 2.0, source
- Mj枚lnir: M氓rten Eskil Winge, Public domain, source
- John Dee: Unidentified painter, Public domain, source
- Michael Sendivogius: 艁uszczkiewicz, Public domain, source
- Key of Solomon: Anonymous Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Triple Goddess: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Aleister Crowley: Aleister Crowley, Public domain, source
- Three Books of Occult Philosophy: Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, Public domain, source
- Serbian folklore: Uro拧 Predi膰, Public domain, source
- Valknut: Sacrificial_scene_on_Hammars_(I).JPG : Berig derivative work: The Man, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Icelandic magical staves: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Edward Kelley: Thomas Pennant, Public domain, source
- Basil Valentine: TomKidd, CC BY-SA 3.0, source