Scholars and sceptics
Anthropologists, historians and investigators who study magic and test its claims.
Scholars and sceptics are the people who study magic from outside the practice: anthropologists, historians, folklorists, psychologists, scholars of religion and investigators who test claims. They have names such as E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Marcel Mauss, Bronislaw Malinowski, Mary Douglas, Keith Thomas and Carlo Ginzburg, and also investigators such as James Randi. This page covers what they have found, how they disagree, and what their work has cost and changed. Their work has changed how the whole subject is understood.
Early theories
Nineteenth-century writers such as James Frazer treated magic as a mistaken early science, a view now widely rejected as arrogant and inaccurate. Later anthropologists, including Evans-Pritchard in his 1937 study of the Azande, showed that magical belief can be a consistent way of reasoning about misfortune. Mauss and Malinowski stressed its social role. Fieldwork, archives, laboratory studies and surveys are their main methods, and each field has its own debates and schools.
The history of witch trials
Historians have revised their view of the witch trials. Keith Thomas and Alan Macfarlane studied English village accusations, Carlo Ginzburg found the benandanti in Friuli, and Ronald Hutton has argued about the numbers and causes, and Silvia Federici links the persecution to the rise of capitalism, a thesis historians dispute. The older figure of nine million victims has been dropped, and estimates now run to tens of thousands of executions.
Testing claims
Sceptics test whether claims hold up. James Randi offered a prize for evidence of paranormal power that was never won, and organisations such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry investigate fraud. Researchers study why people believe: pattern-seeking, uncertainty and the wish to control events. The best sceptics aim to understand people, not to mock them. Sceptics hold that claims should be tested, and they have a long record of exposing cases such as spirit photography and fake healers.
Ethics of study
Scholars were often colonial officials or missionaries, and their reports shaped how Indigenous religions were named. Contemporary researchers work with communities, ask consent and respect closed knowledge. Practitioners sometimes object to being explained, and sceptics sometimes to being called closed-minded. The conversation continues, and this guide aims to stay neutral on whether magic works. Their critics reply that science cannot measure everything that matters to a community, and that explaining a ritual away is not the same as understanding it.
Scholars and sceptics on EveryJaadu
The entries written up so far, best known first.
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 5 moreWitchcraft accusations against children
Historical and modern persecution of children blamed for witchcraftBelief 路 Cursing and harm Living
馃嚜馃嚫 SpainLiber Ignium
A medieval Latin manuscript containing recipes for incendiary weapons and chemicals.Text 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyMazap茅gul
A mischievous elf of Romagna with a red cap that steals sleep and braids horse manesBeing 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚠馃嚦 India and 1 moreAstral body
A subtle vehicle of emotion and dream said to travel beyond the physical formBelief 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Change and initiation Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 Sweden and 1 moreStalloSt谩llu
A large, clumsy creature from S谩mi folklore that eats people and is often outwitted by humans.Being 路 Cursing and harm 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreDogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie
A foundational treatise on ritual magic by 脡liphas L茅vi, structured around the tarot.Text 路 Power and authority 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚨馃嚤 PolandFrankenstein town gravediggers scandal
A 1606 witchcraft trial in Silesia that may have inspired Mary Shelley's novelBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 RussiaVolkhovnik袙芯谢褏芯胁薪懈泻
A lost Old Russian divination book of omens and signsText 路 Seeing and foretelling 路 Healing Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomThe Cheltenham Ghost
A late nineteenth century English haunting investigated by the Society for Psychical ResearchBelief Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyOmen (ancient Rome)omen
A sign in ancient Rome believed to reveal the future, good or bad.Belief 路 Seeing and foretelling Historical
馃嚠馃嚫 Iceland and 3 moreDeal with the Devil
A cultural trope of trading one's soul for worldly favours in exchange for demonic aidBelief 路 Power and authority 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomMadgy Figgy's Chair
A granite rock in Cornwall linked to a legendary witch and her storm conjuringFigure 路 Cursing and harm 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyUR Group
An Italian esoteric circle studying magic and traditional philosophy in the late 1920s.Tradition 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Change and initiation Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 2 moreOrder of Nine Angles
A British Satanic network linked to neo-Nazism and violent extremismTradition 路 Cursing and harm 路 Power and authority Living
馃嚫馃嚜 Sweden and 4 moreSun cross
A cross inside a circle found in prehistoric art and modern political symbolsBelief 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚫 IcelandSowilo
The s-rune representing the sun in Germanic writing systemsText 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 4 moreWei脽e Frauen
Elven spirits of sunlight and water in Germanic folkloreBeing 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 GermanyAlgiz
A runic letter representing a terminal sound and later symbols of life and deathText Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United Kingdom and 1 moreGiants (esotericism)
Spiritual beings linked to lost continents and root races in occult literatureBeing 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚪馃嚫 Serbia and 3 moreBo啪i膰袘芯卸懈褯
A Slavic figure linked to the new year and spring, whose name now marks ChristmasFigure 路 Luck and prosperity 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomCurse of Scotland
A nickname for a playing card linked to bad luck and Scottish historyBelief 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚛馃嚜 Germany and 5 moreYellow badgeJudenstern
A marked garment worn by Jews under laws of distinction and humiliation across centuries.Charm 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreGold of Tolosa
A legendary treasure hoard seized by Rome and lost to historyBelief 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 GreeceDaimon未伪委渭蠅谓
A Greek spirit or divine force that mediates between gods and humansBeing 路 Protection 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreGrim Reaper
A hooded skeleton with a scythe, representing death in Western art and story.Figure 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 FranceLoudun possessionsaffaire des poss茅d茅es de Loudun
A 17th-century witchcraft trial in France involving alleged demonic possession by Ursuline nuns.Belief 路 Cursing and harm 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 Italy and 1 moreBooks of secrets
Early modern European compilations of recipes and formulae framed as hidden knowledgeText 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyAlchemical DoorPorta Alchemica
A Roman gate covered in alchemical symbols and legends of transmutationCharm 路 Power and authority 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyShe-wolf (Roman mythology)lupa
The mythical wolf that nursed Rome's founders and became the city's enduring symbolFigure 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚬 ItalyGli ExperimentiGli Experimenti de la Ex.ma S.r Caterina da Furlj Matre de lo inllux.mo S.r Giouanni de Medici
A 16th-century manuscript of alchemical, medicinal, and cosmetic recipes by Caterina SforzaText 路 Healing 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚠馃嚜 IrelandTailteann Games脕enach Tailteann
Ancient Irish funeral games and assemblies held in County Meath to honor the dead.Rite 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Luck and prosperity Historical
馃嚠馃嚫 IcelandSelkolla
A seal-headed woman from Icelandic folklore who clashed with a medieval bishop.Being 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 GreeceMoirai螠慰委蟻蔚蟼
Greek personifications of destiny who spin, measure, and cut the thread of life.Being 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 GreeceSacred mysteries渭蠀蟽蟿萎蟻喂慰谓
Secret ceremonies and divine doctrines held to exceed human reasonBelief 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead 路 Change and initiation Living
馃嚠馃嚜 Ireland and 1 moreAirship of Clonmacnoise
A medieval Irish legend of a ship in the sky and its anchorBelief 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚠馃嚫 IcelandYule catJ贸lak枚tturinn
A giant feline from Icelandic folklore that threatens those without new Christmas clothesFigure 路 Cursing and harm Living
馃嚞馃嚙 United KingdomTyphonian Order
A British Thelemic esoteric body working with dark occultism, kalas, and cosmic mythTradition 路 Change and initiation 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Living
馃嚠馃嚜 IrelandJack O'The Lantern
An Irish folktale about a deceitful man condemned to wander with a carved lanternFigure 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚠馃嚫 Iceland and 3 moreRune poem
Proverbial verses used to memorize the names and order of runic lettersText 路 Power and authority Historical
馃嚪馃嚭 Russia and 1 moreTelekinesis
A purported psychic ability to move objects with the mind aloneBelief 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 4 moreEctoplasm
A substance said to be excreted by mediums during s茅ances, later exposed as common household materials.Substance 路 Speaking with spirits and the dead Historical
馃嚞馃嚪 Greece and 1 moreMaternal impression
A discredited theory that a mother's shock or thoughts can mark her unborn childBelief 路 Cursing and harm Historical
馃嚝馃嚪 France and 1 moreGargoylegargouille
A carved stone waterspout shaped like a creature, used on Gothic buildings to shed rainwaterCharm 路 Protection 路 Wonder and entertainment Historical
馃嚫馃嚜 SwedenSaleby Runestone
A Swedish memorial stone raised by a husband for his wife, featuring an ancient curse.Text 路 Protection Historical
Photo credits on this page
The small pictures above come from Wikimedia Commons under free licences. Some are cropped to fit.
- Witchcraft accusations against children: Radbot, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Stallo: John Bauer, Public domain, source
- Mediumship: Harvey Metcalfe, Public domain, source
- Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology: Unknown author, CC0, source
- Astral body: Rad el Baluvar, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie: Eliphas Levi, Public domain, source
- Frankenstein town gravediggers scandal: Jacek Halicki, CC BY-SA 3.0 pl, source
- Deal with the Devil: Christoph, Public domain, source
- Madgy Figgy's Chair: Jim Champion, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- UR Group: Gruppo di Ur, Public domain, source
- Order of Nine Angles: Unknown author, CC BY 4.0, source
- Giants (esotericism): Athanasius Kircher, Public domain, source
- Curse of Scotland: James Gillray (died 1815), Public domain, source
- Gold of Tolosa: AchilleT, Public domain, source
- Daimon: Fran莽ois-Andr茅 Vincent, Public domain, source
- Grim Reaper: Jaroslav A. Pol谩k, CC BY 4.0, source
- Loudun possessions: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Alchemical Door: Sailko, CC BY 2.5, source
- Gli Experimenti: Mattman723, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Tailteann Games: Unknown author, Public domain, source
- Moirai: John Melhuish Strudwick, Public domain, source
- Sacred mysteries: Johannes Hopffe, Public domain, source
- Airship of Clonmacnoise: Joseph Mischyshyn, CC BY-SA 2.0, source
- Yule cat: Christine Rondeau, CC BY 2.0, source
- Jack O'The Lantern: Bodrugan, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Telekinesis: Strobridge Lithographing Co., Public domain, source
- Gargoyle: Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Saleby Runestone: Berig, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Wei脽e Frauen: Wojciech Gerson, Public domain, source
- Algiz: Arolsen Archives, CC BY-SA 4.0, source
- Sun cross: National Museum of Denmark, CC BY-SA 3.0, source
- Rune poem: Tollef Salemann, CC0, source
- Yellow badge: Edited version of original photo by Rama, CC BY-SA 3.0, source