Yellow shamanism

What it is

Yellow shamanism represents a specific variant of shamanic practice found in Mongolia and parts of Siberia. It is characterized by the integration of Buddhist rituals and beliefs into traditional shamanic frameworks. The name derives from the association with the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, often called the Yellow Hat sect. This label helps distinguish it from other forms of shamanism that do not include Buddhist influences. Scholars generally apply this term to the practices of the Khalka Mongols, though some also use it for Buryat traditions. It is viewed as a syncretic system where indigenous spiritual customs coexist with formal Buddhist doctrine.

Where it comes from

Buddhism first arrived in Mongolia during the Yuan dynasty but was later suppressed. It re-emerged in the sixteenth century following the conversion of Altan Khan. After Outer Mongolia was annexed by the Qing dynasty in 1691, Buddhism became dominant, leading shamans to adopt Buddhist elements. This blending created what is now known as yellow shamanism. In contrast, resistance against this Buddhist-influenced ruling class led northern hunting tribes to develop black shamanism. The term itself was coined in 1992 by Sendenjav Dulam and popularized by Otgony Pürev. Pürev traced yellow shamanism to an unbroken lineage from Genghis Khan's time, centered at the Dayan Deerh monastery.

How it is done

Practitioners combine traditional shamanic techniques with Buddhist liturgy. White shamans, a subset associated with yellow shamanism, invoke Buddhist deities such as Sagaan Ubgen and Burkhan Garbal. They recite Buddhist incantations while wearing traditional black shamanist clothing. This contrasts with black shamans, who call upon traditional spirits. The rituals involve prayers and recitations learned within monastic settings. The practice emphasizes harmony between the shamanic world and Buddhist cosmology, using mantras and symbols from both systems to conduct ceremonies.

Tools and materials

The tradition uses a mix of Buddhist and shamanic items. Practitioners may wear black shamanist garments while invoking Buddhist figures. Sacred texts and incantations from the Gelug school are central to their rites. Monasteries like Dayan Deerh served as centers for learning these combined practices. Specific deities, such as the Ancestor of Buddhism, are honored alongside traditional spirits. The visual distinction often lies in the headwear or symbols associated with the Yellow Hat sect, though modern practitioners may vary in their attire.

What it is for

The primary goals include communion with spiritual forces, protection, and ensuring prosperity. Practitioners seek blessings from Buddhist deities for happiness and well-being. The tradition aims to maintain balance between the human and spirit worlds. It serves communities by addressing misfortune through ritual intervention. Unlike black shamanism, which might be associated with conflict or opposition, yellow shamanism focuses on integration and harmony with the dominant religious culture. It provides a spiritual framework for those navigating the intersection of indigenous and state-sponsored religion.

Who does it

Shamans in this tradition are often trained in monastic environments. They learn Buddhist doctrines alongside traditional shamanic skills. The role is held by individuals recognized for their spiritual abilities. Some scholars argue that the tradition has largely ceased to exist due to historical suppression. Others point to specific lineages, such as those from Khövsgöl Province, as evidence of its continuity before modern disruptions.

Peoples and places

The Khalka Mongols are the primary group associated with yellow shamanism. They constitute the largest population in Mongolia and adopted Buddhist-influenced practices after Qing rule. The Buryats, living around Lake Baikal in Russia, also exhibit similar syncretic traits. Their shamanism mixed with Buddhism after Russian invasion in the seventeenth century. The Darkhad people are noted for practicing black shamanism in defiance of Khalka Buddhist norms. These groups demonstrate how political and religious shifts shaped distinct regional variations of shamanic belief.

What people believe

The worldview blends the Mongolian spirit pantheon with Buddhist cosmology. Genghis Khan is revered as a tngri, a high spirit, within this integrated system. Deities like Sagaan Ubgen are worshipped alongside traditional ancestors. The tradition holds that Buddhist rituals can enhance or protect shamanic powers. It reflects a belief in the compatibility of different spiritual paths. The division between white and black shamanism highlights a moral duality, with white practices linked to benevolent Buddhist forces. This dualism evolved over centuries as political power shifted between Buddhist rulers and traditionalist hunters.

When it is done

However, the tradition is tied to the broader Buddhist calendar and monastic cycles. Rituals may align with seasonal changes or life events, as is common in shamanic practices. The revival of the tradition occurred after 1991, following the end of Soviet influence. This timing suggests a connection to national identity and religious freedom rather than fixed annual dates.

How scholars and sceptics see it

Academics debate the extent of Buddhist influence on Buryat and Khalka shamanism. Some view yellow shamanism as a genuine synthesis, while others see it as a colonial adaptation. Otgony Pürev argues for an ancient, unbroken lineage, relying on evidence from a single monk. Critics contend this view is too narrow and ignores the political context of Qing expansion. Anthropologists note that the term 'yellow' is somewhat disputed but useful for distinguishing Buddhist-influenced practices from purely indigenous ones. Research highlights the tension between state religion and folk spirituality.

Compare and confuse

Yellow shamanism is often contrasted with black shamanism, which rejects Buddhist influence. Black shamanism emerged from resistance to the Buddhist-dominated Khalka ruling class. In Buryatia, a similar distinction existed between white and black shamanism, though the meanings shifted over time. White shamanism adopted Buddhist deities, while black shamanism retained traditional spirits. Both pairs reflect a split between integration and opposition to dominant religious powers. The term 'yellow' specifically references the Gelug school, whereas 'white' is a more general descriptor of benevolence.

Law and persecution

Shamanism was illegal during the Soviet period in Mongolia. The government promoted atheism and suppressed all religious practices. After 1991, laws allowed for religious freedom, leading to a resurgence of Buddhism and shamanism. However, the legal status of specific shamanic lineages remains unclear. Some practitioners operate informally, while others seek recognition within the broader Buddhist community. There are no specific laws protecting or regulating yellow shamanism, leaving it to navigate the general framework of religious liberty.

Questions people ask about Yellow shamanism

Good reading and sources

• Yellow shamanism on WikipediaEncyclopedia
• Wikidata recordOpen data