Mongolian shamanism

What it is

Mongolian shamanism, known locally as Böö mörgöl, is an animistic system of belief deeply rooted in Mongol culture. It centers on the veneration of Tenger, the eternal blue sky, and various ancestral spirits. Practitioners believe that these spiritual forces influence daily life, health, and fortune. The tradition includes both 'yellow' shamanism, which blends with Tibetan Buddhist elements, and 'black' shamanism, which retains older, purely indigenous practices. Shamans, called böö, serve as vital links between people and the spirit world, conducting ceremonies to seek guidance, healing, or protection.

Where it comes from

The earliest records of these beliefs appear in the thirteenth-century text The Secret History of the Mongols. While early sources do not show a fully coherent system, later documents from the seventeenth century reveal a complex hierarchy of spirits. Over time, especially after the sixteenth century, the tradition absorbed significant influences from Tibetan Buddhism following the conversion of Altan Khan. This integration created the distinct 'yellow' form of shamanism. Earlier, pre-Buddhist practices persisted, particularly among northern hunting tribes, leading to the development of 'black' shamanism as a form of resistance against Buddhist dominance.

How it is done

Rituals are conducted by shamans who enter trance states to communicate with spirits. A central tool is the drum, often made of horse skin, which symbolizes the mount carrying the shaman or the invoked spirit. Ceremonies may involve offerings of meat, libations, and joss sticks at sacred sites like ovoos, which are mound-like altars representing specific deities. These rites are performed for various purposes, including healing illness, ensuring good harvests, or seeking protection. The methods vary between yellow and black traditions, with yellow shamans incorporating Buddhist chants and icons into their work.

Tools and materials

The primary instrument is the shaman's drum, which may feature an ongon, or ancestral spirit, attached to its handle. Drum skins are traditionally made from horse hide. Sacred altars, known as ovoos or aobaoes, serve as focal points for worship. These mounds can be dedicated to heavenly gods, mountain spirits, or clan ancestors. Offerings typically include animal meat, incense sticks, and liquid libations. In yellow shamanism, practitioners may also use Buddhist prayer beads, statues, or texts alongside traditional items.

What it is for

People turn to shamanism for healing, protection, and good fortune. Shamans are consulted to diagnose illnesses believed to be caused by angry spirits or broken taboos. They also perform rites to ensure success in hunting, travel, or business. Ancestor worship is central, with families seeking help from their lineage spirits through communal or private shrines. The reverence for Genghis Khan serves as a unifying national spiritual practice, with his shrine in Ordos City attracting pilgrims seeking blessings and cultural connection.

Who does it

Shamans, or böö, are chosen through spiritual calling, often indicated by illness or dreams. They undergo rigorous training and initiation rituals. Both men and women can become shamans, though roles may differ by gender and social status. Yellow shamans often have formal ties to Buddhist institutions, while black shamans operate outside them. Nobles and clan leaders also hold spiritual authority, performing certain rites reserved for high-status individuals. The hierarchy of spirits mirrors the social structure, with different shamans serving different classes of spirits.

Peoples and places

The tradition is primarily associated with Mongols in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia, as well as Buryats in Russia around Lake Baikal. Among Buryats, the blend of shamanism and Buddhism is debated by scholars, with white shamans invoking Buddhist deities while wearing traditional attire. In Inner Mongolia, the practice persists alongside Han Chinese majority culture, with state-supported shrines preserving ancient rituals. Different regions maintain unique variations, reflecting local histories and degrees of Buddhist influence.

What people believe

The worldview posits a complex pantheon of spirits, including ninety-nine tngri, divided into benevolent white and terrifying black groups. Ancestral spirits play a crucial role, categorized as Lord-Spirits, Protector-Spirits, and Guardian-Spirits depending on their origin and power. Nature is imbued with spiritual presence, with mountains, rivers, and skies housing powerful entities. The concept of Tenger represents the supreme cosmic force. Balance between white and black forces is essential, and shamans must adhere to strict codes regarding which spirits they may invoke based on their own spiritual lineage.

When it is done

Rituals occur throughout the year, tied to seasonal changes and life events. The summer solstice is marked by nocturnal fire rituals, such as the Ulaan Tergel ceremony. Ovoos are visited regularly for sacrifices and prayers. Specific days may be designated for honoring particular spirits or ancestors. Life-cycle events like births, weddings, and funerals often involve shamanic rites to ensure spiritual protection and proper transition. The timing of rituals reflects the agricultural and pastoral cycles of Mongol society.

How scholars and sceptics see it

Anthropologists study Mongolian shamanism as a living tradition that adapts to political and social changes. Research highlights the resilience of the practice despite periods of severe suppression. Scholars analyze the relationship between yellow and black shamanism, noting how Buddhist integration altered ritual forms without erasing core animistic beliefs. Historical studies examine the role of shamanism in Mongol empire expansion and subsequent decline. Modern research focuses on the revival of practices in post-socialist Mongolia and the diaspora communities.

Compare and confuse

Mongolian shamanism shares features with other Siberian and Central Asian shamanic traditions, such as the use of drums and spirit journeys. It differs from pure Tengrism by its extensive integration of Buddhist elements in its yellow form. Black shamanism resembles older, pre-Buddhist practices found across the steppe. The veneration of Genghis Khan distinguishes it from other regional traditions, serving as a unique national spiritual anchor. Comparisons with Tibetan Buddhism highlight the syncretic nature of yellow shamanism, where Buddhist deities are incorporated into the shamanic pantheon.

Law and persecution

Legal status varies by country. In Mongolia, shamanism is recognized as part of cultural heritage, with organizations supporting its practice. In China, activities are regulated, with state-approved shrines operating under supervision. Unregistered rituals may face restrictions. Historical persecution left deep scars, but recent decades have seen legal protections for religious freedom. Diaspora communities in countries like the United States organize associations to preserve and teach traditions, navigating local laws regarding religious expression and cultural preservation.

Rites that involve Mongolian shamanism

Questions people ask about Mongolian shamanism

Good reading and sources

• Mongolian shamanism on WikipediaEncyclopedia
• Wikidata recordOpen data