Witchcraft in the Philippines

What it is

Pangkukulam is a system of magical belief found across the Philippines. It involves the use of black magic to inflict harm on others. This practice is deeply tied to indigenous folk religions that existed before Spanish colonization. Witches are seen as malevolent forces who can curse people. However, they are also sometimes sought to bring justice against criminals like thieves or land grabbers. Shamans, known as babaylan, act as counters to this magic. They perform rituals to heal those harmed by witches. The concept differs from Western ideas of witchcraft, as it varies significantly among different ethnic groups.

Where it comes from

The roots of pangkukulam lie in pre-colonial Philippine society. Indigenous shamans were originally respected for their healing abilities. During the Spanish colonial period, these shamans were demonized by colonizers. Many were replaced by Christian or Islamic influenced healers. Despite this, the belief in sorcery persisted. Historical records from the 17th century, such as those by Francisco Combés, document these practices. The tradition evolved through syncretism with foreign religions but retains its core indigenous elements.

How it is done

Practitioners often use sympathetic magic to affect their targets. This involves creating a link between a representation of the victim and the ritual object. Common tools include effigies, poppets, or boiling pots. Bodily materials like hair or nail clippings are used to strengthen this connection. The sorcerer may harm the effigy or send objects like insects or needles into the victim's body. Chants, spells, and symbols are recited during the process. Some rituals involve specific ingredients, such as seawater, to cause physical symptoms like bloating.

Tools and materials

The materials used depend on the type of magic. Kulam often uses beetles, dolls, or pots linked to the victim. Mambabarang relies on carnivorous beetles kept in bamboo containers. These insects are fed ginger and then released to enter the victim's body. Other methods involve poisons called hilo or lason. Candles, oils, herbs, and kitchen utensils are also common. The choice of tool determines the nature of the harm inflicted, ranging from illness to death.

What it is for

People seek out sorcerers to punish wrongdoers or protect themselves from curses. Healer-sorcerers believe black magic only works on guilty individuals. Targets include adulterous spouses, thieves, and land grabbers. Victims of sorcery consult shamans to lift curses using sumbalik, or counter-spells. These antidotes deflect the harm back to the caster. In some cases, healing rituals aim to evoke compassion in the sorcerer rather than harm them.

Who does it

Sorcerers are known by various names across ethnic groups, such as mangkukulam or mambabarang. These terms often carry negative connotations, translating to witch or hag. Practitioners may be ordinary people or those with hereditary powers. Some are believed to inherit their abilities through lineage or transference. Shamans, who counter these effects, are chosen or trained within indigenous traditions. Their status varies, but they are generally respected for their ability to heal and protect.

Peoples and places

Each ethnic group in the Philippines has its own terminology and practices for witchcraft. Terms vary from Tagalog mangkukulam to Visayan dalongan. The Aswang, vampire-like beings, are also considered a form of witch in some regions. These entities are believed to gain power through feeding on humans. Practices differ by community, with no single definition of a witch. The diversity reflects the archipelago's many distinct cultural traditions.

What people believe

The worldview behind pangkukulam involves spirits, ancestors, and supernatural forces. Witches are seen as capable of shape-shifting or sending evil spirits. The Aswang are believed to be born from other Aswang or gain power through salab, a transfer of curse. Innocent people are thought to be immune to black magic. Harm is often attributed to moral failings or social transgressions. The balance between healing and harming is maintained by shamans and spiritual rules.

When it is done

Rituals are performed during times of crisis or when injustice occurs. There are no fixed calendar dates for these practices. Instead, they are triggered by personal or communal needs. Shamans may perform counter-rituals whenever a victim seeks help. The timing depends on the severity of the curse or the urgency of the situation.

How scholars and sceptics see it

Anthropologists view pangkukulam as a reflection of social tensions and moral codes. Accusations of witchcraft often arise from paranoia or mass hysteria. Historians note that colonial authorities used these beliefs to justify persecution. Sceptics suggest that some effects may be explained by poison or sleight of hand. Researchers emphasize that these beliefs serve to enforce community norms and punish deviance.

Compare and confuse

Pangkukulam is often confused with Western witchcraft, but the concepts differ significantly. It shares similarities with other Southeast Asian sympathetic magic traditions. Terms like kulam and barang have equivalents in neighboring cultures. The Aswang are unique to Philippine mythology, resembling vampire legends elsewhere.

Questions people ask about Witchcraft in the Philippines

Good reading and sources

• Witchcraft in the Philippines on WikipediaEncyclopedia
• Wikidata recordOpen data