Witchcraft in early modern Wales

What it is

Witchcraft in early modern Wales refers to the beliefs and legal cases surrounding magic, known as dewiniaeth, between the sixteenth and mid-eighteenth centuries. While magical practices were woven into daily life, the region saw significantly fewer prosecutions than its neighbors. Most accusations did not lead to conviction, and the legal system often favored acquittal over punishment. This stands in stark contrast to the widespread panic seen elsewhere in Europe, where thousands were executed. The Welsh approach was characterized by a reluctance to impose the death penalty, reflecting a distinct cultural and legal stance on supernatural harm.

Where it comes from

The roots of this phenomenon lie in pre-union Welsh customary law, which prioritized compensation for victims rather than punishing the accused. This tradition continued even after the Acts of Union brought Wales under English rule. English sources noted that different types of magic were used locally, both for healing and harm. Over time, the perception of magic shifted from a neutral or helpful force to one associated with the devil, leading to its criminalization. However, the local courts maintained their deference to older Welsh norms, resisting the harsh punitive measures common in English church courts.

How it is done

Accusations often stemmed from visible signs or community disputes. A backward-written charm could be interpreted as an act of bewitching. Blessings were used to protect against evil, while curses were invoked to bring misfortune, sometimes involving formal gestures toward heaven. When harm occurred, such as illness or death, it was frequently attributed to supernatural interference. Conversely, healers and charmers provided remedies. The legal process involved detention and trial, but communities often intervened by providing character references, leading to dismissals or acquittals when the accused was well-regarded.

Tools and materials

Practitioners and the accused utilized various tangible and ritualistic tools. Written charms were central, with their orientation potentially determining their intent. Blessings served as protective measures, while curses acted as weapons of social control. Formal cursing involved physical postures, such as kneeling with arms stretched upward. In legal contexts, written signatures from locals served as crucial evidence for defense. Medical symptoms, like paralysis or loss of voice, were often misinterpreted as physical manifestations of bewitchment rather than natural causes.

What it is for

The primary intents behind these practices were protection, healing, and harm. Healers used their skills to cure ailments, while others sought to inflict misfortune on enemies through cursing. Blessings were essential for maintaining social harmony and avoiding divine or supernatural punishment. The legal system aimed to resolve conflicts, though the threat of execution loomed for those convicted under English acts. Ultimately, the purpose of these beliefs was to explain misfortune and enforce moral behavior within the community, using the fear of supernatural retribution as a deterrent.

Who does it

Those accused ranged from respected healers to marginalized widows. Gwen ferch Ellis was known for healing before her execution. Margaret ferch Richard was a charmer and widow. Dorothy Griffith was detained but supported by local testimony. Practitioners were often women, though men like Rhydderch ap Evan were also tried. Training was informal, passed down through family or community reputation. Status varied; some were integrated into society, while others faced suspicion. The legal system treated them as criminals, but local customs often viewed them as part of the social fabric, leading to frequent acquittals based on community standing.

Peoples and places

This practice is specific to the Welsh people during the early modern period. It differs significantly from English and Scottish traditions, where persecution was far more intense. While England executed hundreds, Wales executed only five. The Welsh legal system, influenced by customary law, resisted the harshness of English witchcraft acts. Cases were concentrated in north Wales, near the Anglo-Welsh border. The Welsh approach reflected a unique cultural identity that valued community harmony over punitive justice, resulting in a much lower rate of convictions and executions compared to neighboring regions.

What people believe

Beliefs centered on the power of words and intentions. Good or evil outcomes were thought to depend on receiving blessings. Curses were believed to cause real harm, affecting health and property. The devil was increasingly associated with harmful magic. Healing was seen as a legitimate use of magical knowledge, while causing harm was criminalized. Illnesses were often interpreted as spiritual attacks. The community played a role in validating these beliefs, either supporting the accused through testimony or condemning them based on rumors. The line between folk healing and witchcraft was thin and often determined by social context.

When it is done

These events occurred throughout the early modern period, from the 1500s to the 1700s. Specific cases are tied to years like 1594, 1622, and 1655. There are no specific festivals or seasonal timings mentioned for these practices. They arose from daily life, disputes, and illnesses. The legal changes, such as the Witchcraft Act of 1735, marked a shift in the calendar of persecution, ending executions. The timing of accusations was often linked to personal grievances or unexplained misfortunes rather than religious holidays.

How scholars and sceptics see it

Historians like Richard Suggett and Kelsea Rees analyze these cases to understand Welsh legal culture. Suggett notes contemporary English views on Welsh magic. Rees highlights the concentration of cases in north Wales and the high acquittal rate. Scholars compare Welsh statistics to the broader European context, emphasizing the rarity of executions. They interpret the low prosecution numbers as evidence of strong customary law and community resistance to English legal impositions. The focus is on how local norms mitigated the impact of national witch-hunt legislation.

Compare and confuse

Witchcraft in Wales is often compared to the intense persecutions in England and Scotland. While England executed around 500 people, Wales executed only five. The Welsh system relied on customary law, whereas England used statutory acts. The term dewiniaeth is specific to Wales, unlike the broader English 'witchcraft'. The focus on compensation versus punishment distinguishes the two systems. Acquittals were common in Wales, contrasting with the higher conviction rates elsewhere. This comparison highlights the unique legal and cultural landscape of early modern Wales.

Law and persecution

The Acts of Union integrated Wales into the English legal system, but local courts often applied customary law. The Witchcraft Acts of 1542, 1563, 1604, and 1735 defined the crimes, but enforcement varied. The 1735 Act ended executions by making it a crime to accuse others of witchcraft. Courts of Great Sessions handled cases, showing deference to Welsh norms. Punishments ranged from imprisonment to death, but death sentences were rare. The law aimed to suppress harmful magic while allowing healing practices to continue, though the distinction was often blurred in practice. Legal outcomes depended heavily on local interpretation and community influence.

Today

Today, these events are studied as part of Welsh history and legal heritage. The cases serve as examples of how local customs can resist national policies. Museums and historical societies preserve the records of these trials. The legacy of dewiniaeth influences modern perceptions of Welsh folklore and identity. There is no living practice of early modern witchcraft, but the stories remain part of the cultural narrative. Scholars continue to analyze the social dynamics of these cases, offering insights into gender, law, and belief in early modern Britain.

Questions people ask about Witchcraft in early modern Wales

Good reading and sources

• Witchcraft in early modern Wales on WikipediaEncyclopedia
• Wikidata recordOpen data